Vedanta philosophy acknowledges the Prasthanatrayi as its three authoritative primary sources. The texts comprising the Prasthanatrayi are the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita and the Brahma Sutra. The Upanishads are the sruti prasthana, the revealed texts (sruti - that which is heard); the Bhagavadgita is the smriti prasthana, composed by sages based on their understanding of the Vedas (smriti - that which is remembered); the Brahma Sutra is the nyaya prasthana, the logical text that sets forth the philosophy systematically (nyaya - logic/order). No study of Vedanta is considered complete without a close examination of the Prasthanatrayi .
● Upanishad, also spelled Upanisad, Sanskrit Upaniṣad (“Connection”), one of four genres of texts that together constitute each of the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of most Hindu traditions. Each of the four Vedas—the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda—consists of a Samhita (a “collection” of hymns or sacred formulas); a liturgical prose exposition called a Brahmana; and two appendices to the Brahmana—an Aranyaka (“Book of the Wilderness”), which contains esoteric doctrines meant to be studied by the initiated in the forest or some other remote place, and an Upanishad, which speculates about the ontological connection between humanity and the cosmos. Because the Upanishads constitute the concluding portions of the Vedas, they are called vedanta (“the conclusion of the Vedas”), and they serve as the foundational texts in the theological discourses of many Hindu traditions that are also known as Vedanta. The Upanishads’ impact on later theological and religious expression and the abiding interest they have attracted are greater than that of any of the other Vedic texts.The Upanishads became the subject of many commentaries and subcommentaries, and texts modeled after them and bearing the name “Upanishad” were composed through the centuries up to about 1400 ce to support a variety of theological positions. The earliest extant Upanishads date roughly from the middle of the 1st millennium bce. Western scholars have called them the first “philosophical treatises” of India, though they neither contain any systematic philosophical reflections nor present a unified doctrine. Indeed, the material they contain would not be considered philosophical in the modern, academic sense. For example, the Upanishads describe rites or performances designed to grant power or to obtain a particular kind of son or daughter.
One Upanishadic concept had tremendous impact on subsequent Indian thought. Contrary to the assertion of early Western scholars, the Sanskrit term Upaniṣad did not originally mean “sitting around” or a “session” of students assembled around a teacher. Rather, it meant “connection” or “equivalence” and was used in reference to the homology between aspects of the human individual and celestial entities or forces that increasingly became primary features of Indian cosmology. Because this homology was considered at the time to be an esoteric doctrine, the title “Upanishad” also became associated during the middle of the 1st millennium bce with a genre of textual works claiming to reveal hidden teachings. The Upanishads present a vision of an interconnected universe with a single, unifying principle behind the apparent diversity in the cosmos, any articulation of which is called brahman. Within this context, the Upanishads teach that brahman resides in the atman, the unchanging core of the human individual. Many later Indian theologies viewed the equation of brahman with atman as the Upanishads’ core teaching.
Thirteen known Upanishads were composed from the middle of the 5th century through the 2nd century bce. The first five of these--Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, and Kaushitaki—were composed in prose interspersed with verse. The middle five--Kena, Katha, Isa, Svetasvatara, and Mundaka—were composed primarily in verse. The last three--Prasna, Mandukya, and Maitri—were composed in prose.,
One Upanishadic concept had tremendous impact on subsequent Indian thought. Contrary to the assertion of early Western scholars, the Sanskrit term Upaniṣad did not originally mean “sitting around” or a “session” of students assembled around a teacher. Rather, it meant “connection” or “equivalence” and was used in reference to the homology between aspects of the human individual and celestial entities or forces that increasingly became primary features of Indian cosmology. Because this homology was considered at the time to be an esoteric doctrine, the title “Upanishad” also became associated during the middle of the 1st millennium bce with a genre of textual works claiming to reveal hidden teachings. The Upanishads present a vision of an interconnected universe with a single, unifying principle behind the apparent diversity in the cosmos, any articulation of which is called brahman. Within this context, the Upanishads teach that brahman resides in the atman, the unchanging core of the human individual. Many later Indian theologies viewed the equation of brahman with atman as the Upanishads’ core teaching.
Thirteen known Upanishads were composed from the middle of the 5th century through the 2nd century bce. The first five of these--Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, and Kaushitaki—were composed in prose interspersed with verse. The middle five--Kena, Katha, Isa, Svetasvatara, and Mundaka—were composed primarily in verse. The last three--Prasna, Mandukya, and Maitri—were composed in prose.,
Upanishads
The Upanishads (translation with notes of Swami Nikhilananda):
Volume I: Katha, Isha, Kena, Mundaka Volume II: Svetasvatara, Prasna and Mandukya with Gaudapada's Karika Volume III: Aitareya and Brhadaranyaka Volume IV: Taittiriya and Chhandogya __________________________________________________________ The Upanishads (Isha, Katha, Kena and Mundakopanishad) (Translated by Swami Paramananda) Svetashvatara Upanishad (Translation & notes: Swami Tyagisananda) Taittiriya Upanishad (Translation & notes: Swami Sharananda) Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (with Shankara's commentary) Mandukya Upanishad with Gaudapada Karika and Shankara's commentary. (Translation: Swami Nikhilananda) |
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● Bhagavad Gita, literally "The Song of God", is a Sanskrit text revered across the plural world of Hinduism as one of the tradition's essential sacred texts. Over its 700 verses, spread over 18 chapters, Bhagavad Gita covers the gist of the three main paths to salvation, namely karma-yoga or the yoga of works, jnana-yoga or the yoga of knowledge, and bhakti-yoga or the yoga of devotion. The scene of the Bhagavad Gita is set on the battlefield of Kuruksetra amidst the onset of a war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Arjuna, one of the five Pandava brothers, finds himself distraught at the thought of having to face his friends, relatives and teachers on the battlefield and turns to his charioteer, none other than Krishna himself, for council. In the ensuing discussion, Krishna dispels Arjuna's illusion by thorough answers to his doubts and questions.
While originally a single chapter of the lengthy Mahabharata epic, over the millennia the Gita has come to stand on its own as the veritable Bible of Hinduism - by far the best known among the myriads of Indic religious texts. Countless commentaries interpreting the text have been written since the early days of Sankara (ca. 800 CE), followed by Ramanuja, Madhva, Sridhara and others down to contemporary commentators like Aurobindo, Bhaktivedanta and Vivekananda.
Dating the text has proven to be a challenge indeed, with dates ranging anywhere between 500-150 BCE. The battle of Kuruksetra itself, where the scene of the discussion is set, carries a traditional date of late 4th millennium BCE. That the text is a part of a larger work that seems to have undergone a number of rendition itself makes the task of dating no easier. This has not, however, taken a toll on Gita's integrity - the merits of the text are great enough to shine on their own, independent of scribal specifics.
While originally a single chapter of the lengthy Mahabharata epic, over the millennia the Gita has come to stand on its own as the veritable Bible of Hinduism - by far the best known among the myriads of Indic religious texts. Countless commentaries interpreting the text have been written since the early days of Sankara (ca. 800 CE), followed by Ramanuja, Madhva, Sridhara and others down to contemporary commentators like Aurobindo, Bhaktivedanta and Vivekananda.
Dating the text has proven to be a challenge indeed, with dates ranging anywhere between 500-150 BCE. The battle of Kuruksetra itself, where the scene of the discussion is set, carries a traditional date of late 4th millennium BCE. That the text is a part of a larger work that seems to have undergone a number of rendition itself makes the task of dating no easier. This has not, however, taken a toll on Gita's integrity - the merits of the text are great enough to shine on their own, independent of scribal specifics.
Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gita (Skt + Eng (Gita Press))
ShrimadBhagwatGita (Skt + Hindi (Gita Press) The Song of God (Transl. Swami Prabhavananda & Christopher Isherwood) Srimad Bhagavad Gita (Translation and comments: Swami Nikhilananda) Srimad Bhagavad Gita (Translation: Swami Tapasyananda) Jnaneshwari (Commentary on the Gita by Sri Jnanadeva (Jnaneswar) Recommended reading: The Bhagavad Gita (Extensive introduction, translation and comments: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan) |
● In the Brahma Sutra, the teachings of Vedanta are set forth in a systematic and logical order. The Brahma Sutra is known by many names: it is also called the Vedanta Sutra, Uttara-mimamsa Sutra, Shariraka Sutra and the Bhikshu Sutra.
The Brahma Sutra consists of 555 aphorisms or sutras, in 4 chapters, each chapter being divided into 4 sections each. The first chapter (Samanvaya: harmony) explains that all the Vedantic texts talk of Brahman, the ultimate reality, which is the goal of life. The second chapter (avirodha: non-conflict) discusses and refutes the possible objections against Vedanta philosophy. The third chapter (Sadhana: the means) describes the process by which ultimate emancipation can be achieved. The fourth chapter (Phala: the fruit) talks of the state that is achieved in final emancipation.
Indian tradition identifies Badarayana, the author of the Brahma Sutra, with Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas. Many commentaries have been written on this text, the earliest extant one being the one by Adi Sankara. Later commentators include Bhaskara, Yadavaprakasha, Ramanuja, Keshava, Neelakantha, Madhva, Baladeva, Vallabha, Vijnana Bhikshu, Vacaspati and Padmapada. Among all these, and other commentaries, Sankara's commentary is considered as an exemplary model of how a commentary should be written, and most commentators are influenced by it, even when they disagree with Sankara's interpretations.
The Brahma Sutra consists of 555 aphorisms or sutras, in 4 chapters, each chapter being divided into 4 sections each. The first chapter (Samanvaya: harmony) explains that all the Vedantic texts talk of Brahman, the ultimate reality, which is the goal of life. The second chapter (avirodha: non-conflict) discusses and refutes the possible objections against Vedanta philosophy. The third chapter (Sadhana: the means) describes the process by which ultimate emancipation can be achieved. The fourth chapter (Phala: the fruit) talks of the state that is achieved in final emancipation.
Indian tradition identifies Badarayana, the author of the Brahma Sutra, with Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas. Many commentaries have been written on this text, the earliest extant one being the one by Adi Sankara. Later commentators include Bhaskara, Yadavaprakasha, Ramanuja, Keshava, Neelakantha, Madhva, Baladeva, Vallabha, Vijnana Bhikshu, Vacaspati and Padmapada. Among all these, and other commentaries, Sankara's commentary is considered as an exemplary model of how a commentary should be written, and most commentators are influenced by it, even when they disagree with Sankara's interpretations.
Brahma Sutra
Brahma Sutras (Shankara's Commentary)
(Translation: Swami Vireshwarananda) Brahma Sutra (Commentary: Swami Shivananda) Brahma Sutra Bhashya (Dvaita Commentary) Brahma Sutra, The Philosophy of Spiritual Life (S. Radhakrishnan) |
The Vedanta ( A Study of the Brahma Sutras with the commentary of Shankara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madhva and Vallabha.) |